Essay Instructions: Topic Journal
Psychological Methods
Lesson 1 Journal Entry # 1 of 1
Read the following passage on comparing points of view. Next, answer the questions in the Thinking Skills section. Label each Journal entry with the appropriate title, Journal Activity 1.
Comparing Points of View
A point of view is a person's opinion about a subject. A point of view can be influenced by various factors, including age, sex, experiences, or beliefs. To compare points of view, first identify the main issues being addressed and the factors that influence the points of view concerning those issues. Second, list the arguments that are offered to support the points of view. Evaluate the arguments according to these criteria:
* The arguments are based on verifiable statements, not simply opinion.
* Information matches other sources.
* The arguments are based on more than one or two incidents.
The excerpts below summarize the points of view of two psychologists.
Psychologist A
Just as in the medical sciences, research with animals has resulted in major achievements in psychology. This research has contributed to important benefits for human beings. For example, the biofeedback technique, which I and many other people use to control high blood pressure, had its origins in studies using rats and other animals.
Accusations of cruelty toward research animals are unsupported. A study that investigated 600 of these alleged accusations did not support the charge of cruelty. This is not to say that some instances of cruelty do not occur. However, these instances are infrequent and not typical of psychological experiments. Researchers must follow rigid guidelines to ensure the humane and sensitive treatment of research animals.
Most people do not think that animals share the characteristics that allow them the same rights as humans. Even advocates of animals' rights condone pet sterilization, disregarding the animals' right to breed.
Psychologist B
As a graduate student, I witnessed many instances of cruelty to animals in various research projects. Yet, of the many experiments done on animals, only a few contribute to important medical or psychological research. A vast number of experiments are used for commercial purposes: to test new shampoos, cosmetics, food additives, or detergents.
People have to realize that species vary, and tests performed on one species do not necessarily yield the same results on another. For example, the use of thalidomide by pregnant women resulted in deformities in many of their babies. Yet giving thalidomide to pregnant laboratory cats, rats, monkeys, hamsters, and chickens failed to result in deformities in the baby animals. Similarly, if the results of the effects of penicillin on guinea pigs had been applied to humans, penicillin would never have been used on people.
There can be no doubt that animals involved in psychological research suffer. The suffering research animals endure should encourage researchers to find alternative methods for studying various psychological issues. One cannot say that animal research can never be justified. If a single experiment involving animals could cure a major disease, then such use could possibly be justified. However, this situation is rare and almost nonexistent.
Thinking Skills:
* What is the main issue that both psychologists are addressing?
* What is psychologist A's point of view? Psychologist B's?
* What factors might be influencing psychologist A's point of view?
* What factors might be influencing psychologists B's point of view?
* List the arguments of each psychologist (Psychologist A and Psychologist B)
* Keeping in mind the three bulleted criteria for evaluating arguments listed at the beginning of this activity, do you think both psychologists present sound arguments? Explain your answer.
* Is there an advantage to being presented with more than one point of view on an issue? Explain your answer.
* Discuss your views about animals being used in research projects that are intended to benefit humans. Explain the factors that influence your personal opinions
Lesson 2
Topic Journal
Consciousness
Lesson 2 Journal Entry # 1 of 1
Read the following passage on comparing points of view. Next, answer the questions in the Thinking Skills section. Label each Journal entry with the appropriate title, Journal Activity 2.
Thinking Skills:
Read each situation below and answer the questions that follow.
Tom and Juanita conducted an experiment to test the effect of age on difference threshold in children 5 years of age and younger. They created an experimental setup that included cards mounted with 12 pairs of paint chips of the same hue but of various shades. The difference between the first pair was fairly obvious, but the difference between each subsequent pair decreased. The last few pairs of chips seemed almost identical. The process that Tom and Juanita used was to show the pairs to a child and to note the smallest amount of difference the child could detect when asked to identify the darker chip on each card. They tested 3 children from each of these age groups: 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5.
* What is the dependent variable?
* What independent variable was tested?
* What unidentified independent variables might have influenced the results?
Ronald and his classroom research group were conducting an experiment to test people's ability to touch their noses when their eyes were shut. They were testing their hypothesis that males were more skilled at this task than females. The group also had a theory that noise could alter a person's ability to carry out the task. They asked several classmates and teachers to perform the task. Sometimes, Ronald or someone else in the research group would whistle or shout while a person tried to do the task.
* What dependent variable did Ronald's group identify?
* What independent variables can you identify?
* Were the variables effectively manipulated? Why or why not?
* How could you improve the experiment?
* Now construct your own experiment; measuring both dependent and independent variables to determine how a lack of sleep influences performance on a math quiz which emphasizes solutions to word problems.
Lesson 3
Topic Journal
Intelligence
Lesson 3 Journal Entry # 1 of 1
Read the following passage on comparing points of view. Next, answer the questions in the Thinking Skills section. Label each Journal entry with the appropriate title, Journal Activity 3.
Analyzing Data
Psychologists use field observations, laboratory experiments, and other methods to gather data relevant to their research questions. When sufficient data have been collected, the researchers analyze the data in order to make inferences about the research topic. The focus of data analysis is the identification of relationships between the various elements of the data. Researchers look for the following types of relationships.
The relationship of necessary condition.
A necessary condition is a condition without which a certain event or effect cannot occur. For example, for a procedural memory of a skill to occur, you must first learn the skill. You may not always remember a skill you have learned, but you can never remember it if you have not learned it. There are four possible relationships (R) between a necessary condition (A) and a certain effect (B).
R.1. If A occurs, then B may or may not occur.
R.2. If A does not occur, then B cannot occur.
R.3. If A occurs, then B must have occurred.
R.4. If A does not occur, then B may or may not have occurred.
The relationship of sufficient condition.
A sufficient condition is a condition that can produce a certain effect. The same effect, however, can be produced by other conditions. For example, brain injury can cause amnesia, but amnesia can also be caused by other conditions. There are four possible relationships between a sufficient condition C and a certain effect D.
R.1. If C occurs, then D occurs.
R.2. If C does not occur, then D may or may not occur.
R.3. If D occurs, then C may or may not have occurred.
R.4. If D does not occur, then C did not occur.
The relationship of necessary and sufficient condition.
If all necessary and sufficient conditions EF occur, then a certain effect G will always occur. If these conditions do not occur, then the effect will not occur. For example, to create memory of an incident, the brain must encode information. Without encoding, there will be no memory of the event. The following are true.
R.1. If EF occurs, then G will occur.
R.2. If EF does not occur, then G will not occur.
R.3. If G occurs, then EF has occurred.
R.4. If G does not occur, then EF has not occurred.
Thinking Skills:
Refer to the information about relationships to answer the following questions regarding analysis.
* True or false? If data show that saying a number over and over is a necessary and sufficient condition for committing the number to memory, then people who want to memorize a phone number must repeat it several times.
* A research study looking for early signs of Alzheimer's disease studied the brains of 14 deceased nuns and examined the autobiographies of the nuns, which were written early in their lives. Of the 5 nuns diagnosed with Alzheimer's, all showed low-idea density in their writing, which means they included very little descriptive information in their writing. The writing of the nuns without Alzheimer's did not show this characteristic. The researcher's believed that low-density writing might be a predictor for the development of Alzheimer's. Using A for Alzheimer's and LDW for low-density writing, write a statement that describes the relationship between Alzheimer's disease and low-density writing demonstrated by this study.
Is the relationship one of necessary condition, sufficient condition, or necessary and sufficient condition?
Do you think this study is sufficient to come to that conclusion? Why or why not?
* Suppose experimental data showed that memory reliability has been increased by 12 percent in people taking medication X and also has been increased in people who have had training in using mnemonic devices. Using DX for taking the drug and IM for result of improved memory, write a statement that best describes the relationship.
* Todd ate two bowls of popcorn while studying for his psychology test. The next day he got an A on the test. Can he conclude that eating lots of popcorn is a necessary condition for memorizing psychology information? Why or why not?
* Depict a scenario describing each of the three relationships with their required conditions as discussed earlier in the Analyzing Data section of this Journal Activity.
Lesson 4
Topic Journal
Adulthood
Lesson 4 Journal Entry # 1 of 1
Read the following passage on comparing points of view. Next, answer the questions in the Thinking Skills section. Label each Journal entry with the appropriate title, Journal Activity 4.
Assessing Validity of Conclusions
When reading a research report, it is important to assess the validity of the conclusions drawn. The validity of conclusions can be tested or assessed by comparing the observations and data in the research report with the conclusions. Assess the validity of conclusions by asking the following questions.
* Does the conclusion summarize the main ideas that can be drawn from the information, observations, and data?
* Do the observations and data support the conclusion, or does the conclusion claim something that is not supported?
* Is further research, or a different research approach, needed to arrive at this conclusion?
* Is the conclusion clear?
Read the following hypothesis, research information, and conclusion from a research report about the perceptual development of newborns.
Hypothesis: Newborns lack the ability to distinguish strong odors.
Research: In a study of 1,500 healthy newborns, the following observations were noted in almost all of the newborns: They stuck out their tongues, spit, and wrinkled their noses when they smelled pungent odors. Newborns smiled and showed licking motions in response to the smells of chocolate, strawberry, and vanilla.
Conclusion: Newborns showed insignificant differences in their responses to pungent odors and to sweet-smelling odors. Therefore, newborns are unable to distinguish strong odors.
This conclusion is invalid because there is nothing in the research information to support this conclusion. A valid conclusion might be newborns showed significant differences in their responses to pungent odors as opposed to sweet-smelling odors. Therefore, newborns are able to distinguish strong odors.
Thinking Skills:
Read the following hypotheses, research information, and conclusions. Use the guidelines above to assess the validity of the conclusions.
* Hypothesis: Certain reflexes are inborn.
Research: A study to determine whether reflexes are inborn was conducted with 3,000 healthy newborns at hospitals in all parts of the world. Two reflexes-grasping and rooting-were studied. Soon after each baby was born, a doctor or nurse performed two tests. In the first test, the doctor or nurse placed a finger against the palm of the baby's hand. In 98 percent of the cases, the babies firmly grasped the finger of the doctor or nurse. In the second test, the doctor or nurse touched the corner of the baby's mouth. In 99 percent of the cases, the babies turned toward the source of the stimulus.
Conclusion: Nearly all the infants studied responded reflexively to the stimuli presented, proving that certain reflexes are inborn.
* Hypothesis: Baby ducks must become attached to their mothers to survive.
Research: In a study of 100 baby ducks, researchers showed the newly hatched ducks the following moving objects: humans, geese, dogs, pigs, and cows. In all cases, the ducks became attached to the first object they saw. In all cases, the baby ducks survived for at least 10 days by following the first object they saw.
Conclusion: Some baby ducks can survive without becoming attached to their mothers, but in general baby ducks must become attached to their mothers to survive.
* Hypothesis: Most children by the age of 3 months understand that objects exist even when they are out of sight.
Research: A research study of 2,500 infants ages 1 month to 12 months was conducted. A researcher played a game of peekaboo with each infant to test the infant's understanding of object permanence. Results (percent understanding) per age group: 0 percent at 1 month, 0 percent at 2 months, 0 percent at 3 months, 1 percent at 4 months, 3 percent at 5 months, 6 percent at 6 months, 25 percent at 7 months, 55 percent at 8 months, 65 percent at 9 months, 79 percent at 10 months, 86 percent at 11 months, 95 percent at 12 months.
Conclusion: Most children by the age of 6 months understand object permanence.
Lesson 5
Topic Journal
Gender Roles
Lesson 5 Journal Entry # 1 of 1
Read the following passage on comparing points of view. Next, answer the questions in the Thinking Skills section. Label each Journal entry with the appropriate title, Journal Activity 5.
Use the steps below to identify and explain the bias in each excerpt above.
* Identify the writer's purpose in writing the research report. For example, if a behaviorist were to write a research report about whether or not humans have free will to make their own choices in life, you would expect the behaviorist to research and focus on how a person's actions and choices are shaped by external forces or influences.
* Examine wording for opinions. Does the writer use words that appeal to an emotion or indicate an opinion? For example, words and phrases such as contemptible, graceful, squeamish, in my opinion, I believe, I think, or in my view indicate an opinion. If opinions are used in the research report, they should be supported with facts.
* Examine wording for negative or positive connotations. Does the writer use words or expressions that suggest approval or disapproval? Does the writer use suggestive, undeserving, or unfair analogies to make a point? If so, this indicates a bias.
* Examine wording for over-generalizations. Over-generalizations often use words such as best, worst, none, all, and everybody.
* Examine the research report for an imbalance in the presentation. Does the report present only one side of an issue or theory and fail to present other viewpoints or research?
* Examine the research report for implied beliefs or hidden assumptions. Does the report imply beliefs that are not valid?
Thinking Skills:
Read the following excerpts from research reports.
* In his research, Gordon Allport identified about 18,000 human traits. Allport concluded from his research that traits are the building blocks of personality. Allport's conclusion is about as sound as a skyscraper constructed without a foundation.
* Social learning is the proper focus from which to explain differences in personalities. In my judgment, people gain personality traits by observing others. A person who does not observe violence will have a calm, controlled, and even-tempered personality.
* This research report explores the five approaches to the study of personality-trait theory, psychoanalytic theory, learning theory, humanistic theory, and sociocultural theory. I have collected a vast amount of data on the subject during my past 20 years as a humanistic psychologist. My research report uses this information to answer the question. How does personality develop?
* One participant in the case study was a high school student named Vilay. Since Vilay was raised by parents who had grown up in Japan, she tended to be rigid and controlled in her emotions. This was obvious because she looked uncomfortable expressing her feelings to the interviewer.
Lesson 6
Topic Journal
Social Interaction
Lesson 6 Journal Entry # 1 of 1
Read the following passage on comparing points of view. Next, answer the questions in the Thinking Skills section. Label each Journal entry with the appropriate title, Journal Activity 6.
Thinking Skills:
Read the following statements. Using the tips for recognizing stereotypes, decide whether each statement contains a stereotype. Explain your decisions.
* People with obsessive-compulsive disorders are weird. They should be avoided because they have lost touch with reality and are harmful to others.
* Anxiety disorders are common. The types of anxiety disorders range from a general state of dread to stress disorders. In serious cases, anxiety disorders can lead to significant restrictions and limitations in lifestyle, relationships, and work. Most people with anxiety disorders, however, respond well to treatment and eventually can lead normal lives.
* Individuals in the manic phase of bipolar disorder may experience hallucinations, engage in implosive behaviors, and exhibit delusions about having superior abilities. The manic phase of bipolar disorder can be disruptive to a person's life. It is important that individuals in this phase seek help from a psychologist.
* People who take medication for their depression are angry, hostile people. They are unpredictable and make poor employees.
* According to a well-respected psychology text, a documented study shows that a family environment in which a parent frequently expresses intense emotions and has a pushy, critical attitude puts children at risk of developing schizophrenia. Another study, described in the same text, shows that people with schizophrenia are more likely than others to have suffered an injury or other trauma around the time of their birth.
* Why is it important to recognize stereotypes?
